Social Isolation

This handout explores the social isolation schema, characterized by feelings of difference and disconnection from others.

Download or send

Professional version

Offers theory, guidance, and prompts for mental health professionals. Downloads are in Fillable PDF format where appropriate.

Client version

Includes client-friendly guidance. Downloads are in Fillable PDF format where appropriate.

Overview

The Social Isolation information handout is part of the Psychology Tools Schema series, designed to aid therapists and clients in effectively addressing common early maladaptive schemas (EMS) identified in schema therapy. This resource offers insights into Social Isolation, an EMS characterized by feelings of being different, excluded, and disconnected from others. It describes how people experience this schema and how they try to cope with it.

Why Use This Resource?

Social isolation is one of the most common schemas. This resource helps clients:

  • Recognize how the Social Isolation schema operates in their lives.
  • Understand the origins of this schema.
  • Consider ways they can heal this schema.

Key Benefits

Insight

Offers a comprehensive overview of Social Isolation schema.

Understanding

Clarifies how and why people experience this schema and where it might originate from.

Strategies

Describes some of the key ways this schema can be addressed.

Who is this for?

Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD)

Feeling different to other people, leading to anxiety and self-consciousness.

Relationship Problems

Chronic difficulties connecting to others.

Other difficulties

The social isolation schema has been associated with bipolar disorder, depression, eating disorders, and personality disorders.

Integrating it into your practice

01

Understand

Educate the client about early maladaptive schemas.

02

Identify

Help the client recognize how the Social Isolation schema operates in their life.

03

Monitor

Encourage the client to notice when this schema is activated.

04

Heal

Address the schema using interventions such as behavioral experiments, imagery rescripting, and limited reparenting.

Theoretical Background & Therapist Guidance

Schema therapy integrates a variety of therapeutic approaches to treat complex psychological difficulties. Developed by Jeffrey Young, schema therapy focuses on the role of early maladaptive schemas (EMS), which develop when core emotional needs go unmet in childhood.

Schemas have a significant impact on the way people think, feel, and relate to others, contributing to chronic psychological distress.

People with a social isolation EMS believe they are fundamentally different from others and do not fit in. As a result, they tend to feel isolated, marginalized, or ostracized, sometimes by a specific group or the world at large (Young, 2014).

The experience of this schema is one of loneliness and a lack of belonging. Unlike most other schemas, the social isolation EMS tends to emerge later in childhood or adolescence, often in response to social exclusion outside of the home environment, such as peer rejection or victimization (Rafaeli et al., 2011).

Research indicates that the social isolation EMS is the one of the most prevalent schemas across mental health disorders (Thimm & Chang, 2022).

What's inside

  • A comprehensive overview of schema theory.
  • Detailed description of the social isolation schema, including childhood origins and common coping responses.
  • Therapist guidance for identifying and exploring schemas in therapy.
  • Suggestions for how to meet the needs of clients with this schema.
Get access to this resource

FAQs

People with a social isolation schema believe they are different to other people and don't fit in. Some people with this schema feel anxious and uncomfortable in social situations, while others have a deep sense that they don't belong anywhere.
This handout provides insights into how people experience this schema, ways they try to cope with it, and why it might develop. This can help with assessment, case conceptualization, and treatment planning.
Yes, social isolation has been associated with various mental health disorders, including social anxiety, depression, and personality disorders.

How This Resource Improves Clinical Outcomes

Integrating this resource into therapy sessions can help clients:

  • Better understand the schemas they struggle with.
  • Become more aware of their unmet emotional needs.
  • Recognize when their schemas are active.

Therapists benefit from an accessible resource that can inform schema assessment, case conceptualization, and treatment planning.

Clinicians Who Use This Resource Also Use

References And Further Reading

  • Alba, J., Calvete, E., Wante, L., Van Beveren, M. L., & Braet, C. (2018). Early maladaptive schemas as moderators of the association between bullying victimization and depressive symptoms in adolescents. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 42, 24-35. DOI: 10.1007/s10608-017-9874-5.
  • Anderson, C. A., Miller, R. S., Riger, A. L., Dill, J. C., & Sedikides, C. (1994). Behavioral and characterological attributional styles as predictors of depression and loneliness: Review, refinement, and test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 549-558. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.66.3.549.
  • Arntz, A., & Jacob, G. (2013). Schema therapy in practice: An introductory guide to the schema mode approach. John Wiley and Sons.
  • Arntz, A., Rijkeboer, M., Chan, E., Fassbinder, E., Karaosmanoglu, A., Lee, C. W., & Panzeri, M. (2021). Towards a reformulated theory underlying schema therapy: Position paper of an international workgroup. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 45, 1007-1020. DOI: 10.1007/s10608-021-10209-5.
  • Askari, A. (2021). New concepts of schema therapy: The six coping styles. Amir Askari.
  • Baba, A., Kloiber, S., & Zai, G. (2022). Genetics of social anxiety disorder: A systematic review. Psychiatric Genetics, 32, 37-66. DOI: 10.1097/YPG.0000000000000310.
  • Bach, B., Lockwood, G., & Young, J. E. (2018). A new look at the schema therapy model: organization and role of early maladaptive schemas. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 47, 328-349. DOI: 10.1080/16506073.2017.1410566.
  • Baker, S. R., & Edelmann, R. J. (2002). Is social phobia related to lack of social skills? Duration of skill-related behaviours and ratings of behavioural adequacy. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41, 243-257. DOI: 10.1348/014466502760379118.
  • Barazandeh, H., Kissane, D. W., Saeedi, N., & Gordon, M. (2016). A systematic review of the relationship between early maladaptive schemas and borderline personality disorder/traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 94, 130-139. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.01.021.
  • Bishop, A., Younan, R., Low, J., & Pilkington, P. D. (2022). Early maladaptive schemas and depression in adulthood: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 29, 111-130. DOI: 10.1002/cpp.2630.
  • Beristain, C. M., & Wiener, J. (2020). Finding true friendships: The friendship experiences of adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 35, 280-298. DOI: 10.1177/0829573520931679.
  • Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. Basic Books.
  • Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss, Vol. 2: Separation. New York: Basic Books.
  • Briedis, J., & Startup, H. (2020). Somatic perspective in schema therapy: The role of the body in the awareness and transformation of modes and schemas. In G. Heath and H. Startup (Eds.), Creative methods in schema therapy: Advances and innovations in practice (pp.60-75). Routledge.
  • Brockman, R. N., Simpson, S., Hayes, C., Wijingaart, R. V. D., & Smout, M. (2023). Cambridge guide to schema therapy. Cambridge University Press.
  • Bruysters, N. Y. F., & Pilkington, P. D. (2023). Overprotective parenting experiences and early maladaptive schemas in adolescence and adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 30, 10-23. DOI: 10.1002/cpp.2776.
  • Cacioppo, J. T. & Hawkley, L. C. (2005). People thinking about people: The vicious cycle of being a social outcast in one's own mind. In K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp.35-51). Psychology Press.
  • Cacioppo, J. T., Hawkley, L. C., Ernst, J. M., Burleson, M., Berntson, G. G., Nouriani, B., & Spiegel, D. (2006). Loneliness within a nomological net: An evolutionary perspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 1054-1085. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2005.11.007.
  • Chow, R. M., Tiedens, L. Z., & Govan, C. L. (2008). Excluded emotions: The role of anger in antisocial responses to ostracism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 896-903. DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2007.09.004.
  • Cockram, D. M., Drummond, P. D., & Lee, C. W. (2010). Role and treatment of early maladaptive schemas in Vietnam veterans with PTSD. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 17, 165-182. DOI: 10.1002/cpp.690.
  • Cruwys, T., Dingle, G. A., Hornsey, M. J., Jetten, J., Oei, T. P., & Walter, Z. C. (2014). Social isolation schema responds to positive social experiences: Longitudinal evidence from vulnerable populations. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53, 265-280. DOI: 10.1111/bjc.12042.
  • Cutland Green, T., & Balfour, A. (2020). Assessment and formulation in schema therapy. In G. Heath & H. Startup (Eds.), Creative methods in schema therapy: Advances and innovation in clinical practice (pp.19-47). Routledge.
  • De Heer, C., Bi, S., Finkenauer, C., Alink, L., & Maes, M. (2022). The association between child maltreatment and loneliness across the lifespan: a systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis. Child Maltreatment. DOI: 10.1177/10775595221103420.
  • Dean, K. K., Wentworth, G., & LeCompte, N. (2019). Social exclusion and perceived vulnerability to physical harm. Self and Identity, 18, 87-102. DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2017.1370389.
  • Downey, G., Bonica, C., & Rincon, C. (1999). Rejection sensitivity and adolescent romantic relationships. In W. Furman, B. B. Brown, & C. Feiring (Eds.), The development of romantic relationships in adolescence (pp.148-174). Cambridge University Press.
  • Downey, G., & Feldman, S. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1327-1343. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1327.
  • Dryman, M. T., & Heimberg, R. G. (2018). Emotion regulation in social anxiety and depression: A systematic review of expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal. Clinical Psychology Review, 65, 17-42. DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2018.07.004.
  • Dutra, L., Callahan, K., Forman, E., Mendelsohn, M., & Herman, J. (2008). Core schemas and suicidality in a chronically traumatized population. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 196, 71-74. DOI: 10.1097/NMD.0b013e31815fa4c1.
  • Feldman, M., Hamsho, N., Blacher, J., Carter, A. S., & Eisenhower, A. (2022). Predicting peer acceptance and peer rejection for autistic children. Psychology in the Schools, 59, 2159-2182. DOI: 10.1002/pits.22739.
  • Fitness, J. (2005). Bye bye, black sheep: The causes and consequences of rejection in family relationships. In K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp.263-276). Psychology Press.
  • Gao, S., Assink, M., Cipriani, A., & Lin, K. (2017). Associations between rejection sensitivity and mental health outcomes: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 57, 59-74. DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2017.08.007.
  • Gioia, F., Colella, G. M., & Boursier, V. (2022). Evidence on problematic online gaming and social anxiety over the past ten years: A systematic literature review. Current Addiction Reports, 9, 32-47. DOI: 10.1007/s40429-021-00406-3.
  • Grace, K., Remington, A., Lloyd-Evans, B., Davies, J., & Crane, L. (2022). Loneliness in autistic adults: A systematic review. Autism, 26, 2117-2135. DOI: 10.1177/13623613221077721.
  • Hahn, J., & Oishi, S. (2006). Psychological needs and emotional well-being in older and younger Koreans and Americans. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 689-698. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2005.09.001.
  • Heinrich, L. M., & Gullone, E. (2006). The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 695-718. DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002.
  • Henker, J., Keller, A., Reiss, N., Siepmann, M., Croy, I., & Weidner, K. (2019). Early maladaptive schemas in patients with somatoform disorders and somatization. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 26, 418-429. DOI: 10.1002/cpp.2363.
  • Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., & Mikail, S. F. (2017). Perfectionism: A relational approach to conceptualization, assessment, and treatment. Guildford Press.
  • Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., Sherry, S. B., Habke, M., Parkin, M., Lam, R. W., McMurtry, B., Ediger, E., Fairlie, P., & Stein, M. B. (2003). The interpersonal expression of perfection: Perfectionistic self-presentation and psychological distress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1303-1325. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.6.1303.
  • Himle, J. A., Weaver, A., Bybee, D., O'Donnell, L., Vlnka, S., Laviolette, W., Steinberger, E., Golenberg, Z., & Levine, D. S. (2014). Employment barriers, skills, and aspirations among unemployed job seekers with and without social anxiety disorder. Psychiatric Services, 65, 924-930. DOI: 10.1176/appi.ps.201300201.
  • Jacobs, N., & Harper, B. (2013). The effects of rejection sensitivity on reactive and proactive aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 39, 3-12. DOI: 10.1002/ab.21455.
  • Janovsky, T., Rock, A. J., Thorsteinsson, E. B., Clark, G. I., & Murray, C. V. (2020). The relationship between early maladaptive schemas and interpersonal problems: A meta‐analytic review. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 27, 408-447. DOI: 10.1002/cpp.2439.
  • Joiner, T. E. (2005). Why people die by suicide. Harvard University Press.
  • Kestenberg, M., & Kestenberg, J. S. (1988). The sense of belonging and altruism in children who survived the Holocaust. Psychoanalytic Review, 75, 533-560.
  • Khosravani, V., Mohammadzadeh, A., Bastan, F. S., Amirinezhad, A., & Amini, M. (2019). Early maladaptive schemas and suicidal risk in inpatients with bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Research, 271, 351-359. DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.11.067.
  • Kiff, C. J., Lengua, L. J., & Zalewski, M. (2011). Nature and nurturing: Parenting in the context of child temperament. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 251-301. DOI: 10.1007/s10567-011-0093-4.
  • Kim, J. E., Lee, S. W., & Lee, S. J. (2014). Relationship between early maladaptive schemas and symptom dimensions in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Research, 215, 134-140. DOI:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.07.036.
  • Kiraz, S., & Sertçelik, S. (2021). Adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and early maladaptive schemas. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 28, 1055-1064. DOI: 10.1002/cpp.2569.
  • Kudryavtsev, V. T. (2011). The phenomenon of child creativity. International Journal of Early Years Education, 19, 45-53. DOI: 10.1080/09669760.2011.570999.
  • Kunst, H., Lobbestael, J., Candel, I., & Batink, T. (2020). Early maladaptive schemas and their relation to personality disorders: A correlational examination in a clinical population. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 27, 837-846. DOI: 10.1002/cpp.2467.
  • Ladd, G. W., Ettekal, I., & Kochenderfer-Ladd, B. (2019). Longitudinal changes in victimized youth's social anxiety and solitary behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47, 1211-1223. DOI: 10.1007/s10802-018-0467-x.
  • Lewis, S. P., Lumley, M. N., & Grunberg, P. H. (2015). Early maladaptive schemas and non-suicidal self-injury among young adults: A preliminary investigation. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 28, 386-402. DOI: 10.1080/09515070.2015.1074887.
  • Lin, X., Zhuo, S., Liu, Z., Fan, J., & Peng, W. (2022). Autistic traits heighten sensitivity to rejection-induced social pain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1517, 286-299. DOI: 10.1111/nyas.14880.
  • Lockwood, G., & Perris, P. (2012). A new look at core emotional needs. In M. van Vreeswijk, J. Broersen, & M. Nadort (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of schema therapy: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 41-66). John Wiley and Sons.
  • London, B., Downey, G., Bonica, C., & Paltin, I. (2007). Social causes and consequences of rejection sensitivity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 481-506. DOI: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00531.x.
  • Loose, C., Graaf, P., Zarbock, G., & Holt, R. A. (2020). Schema therapy for children and adolescents (ST-CA): A practitioner's guide. Pavilion.
  • Louis, J. P., Wood, A. M., Lockwood, G., Ho, M.-H. R., & Ferguson, E. (2018). Positive clinical psychology and Schema Therapy (ST): The development of the Young Positive Schema Questionnaire (YPSQ) to complement the Young Schema Questionnaire 3 Short Form (YSQ-S3). Psychological Assessment, 30, 1199-1213. DOI: 10.1037/pas0000567.
  • Maher, A., Cason, L., Huckstepp, T., Stallman, H., Kannis-Dymand, L., Millear, P., Mason, J., Wood, A., & Allen, A. (2022). Early maladaptive schemas in eating disorders: A systematic review. European Eating Disorders Review, 30, 3-22. DOI: 10.1002/erv.2866.
  • Matthews, T., Danese, A., Wertz, J., Odgers, C. L., Ambler, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Arseneault, L. (2016). Social isolation, loneliness and depression in young adulthood: a behavioural genetic analysis. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 51, 339-348. DOI: 10.1007/s00127-016-1178-7.
  • May, T., Younan, R., & Pilkington, P. D. (2022). Adolescent maladaptive schemas and childhood abuse and neglect: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 29, 1159-1171. DOI: 10.1002/cpp.2712.
  • Morrison, P. S. & Smith, R. (2018). Loneliness: An overview. In O. Sagan & E. D. Miller (Eds.), Narratives of loneliness: Multidisciplinary perspectives from the 21st century (pp.11-25). Routledge.
  • Nia, M. K., & Sovani, A. (2014). Cross cultural comparison role of early maladaptive schemas and coping styles between women with depressive symptoms in Iran and India. Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 4, 57-65.
  • Nicol, A., Mak, A. S., Murray, K., Walker, I., & Buckmaster, D. (2020). The relationships between early maladaptive schemas and youth mental health: A systematic review. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 44, 715-751. DOI: 10.1007/s10608-020-10092-6.
  • Noor, R., & Dildar, S. (2021). Childhood traumatic experiences, early maladaptive schemas and personality dysfunctions in shelter home residents. Pakistan Journal of Applied Psychology, 1, 10-23.
  • Nordahl, H. M., Holthe, H., & Haugum, J. A. (2005). Early maladaptive schemas in patients with or without personality disorders: Does schema modification predict symptomatic relief? Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 12, 142-149. DOI: 10.1002/cpp.430.
  • Nurmi, J. E., Toivonen, S., Salmela-Aro, K., & Eronen, S. (1996). Optimistic, approach-oriented, and avoidance strategies in social situations: three studies on loneliness and peer relationships. European Journal of Personality, 10, 201-219. DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0984(199609)10:3<201::AID-PER257>3.0.CO;2-%23
  • O'Sheedy, B. (2021). Is connectedness to nature a core human need? Schema Therapy Bulletin, 23, 10-14.
  • Olfson, M., Guardino, M., Struening, E., Schneier, F. R., Hellman, F., & Klein, D. F. (2000). Barriers to the treatment of social anxiety. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 521-527.
  • Oshima, F., Iwasa, K., Nishinaka, H., & Shimizu, E. (2015). Early maladaptive schemas and autism spectrum disorder in adults. Journal of Evidence-Based Psychotherapies, 15, 191-205.
  • Özdel, K., Türkçapar, M. H., Guriz, S. O., Hamamci, Z., Duy, B., Taymur, I., & Riskind, J. H. (2015). Early maladaptive schemas and core beliefs in antisocial personality disorder. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 8, 306-317. DOI: 10.1521/ijct.2015.8.4.306.
  • Özdin, S., Sarisoy, G., Şahin, A. R., Arik, A. C., Özyıldız Güz, H., Böke, Ö., & Karabekiroğlu, A. (2018). Early maladaptive schemas in patients with bipolar and unipolar disorder. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice, 22, 151-156. DOI: 10.1080/13651501.2017.1387268
  • Park, H. J., Morgan, T., Wiles, J., & Gott, M. (2019). Lonely ageing in a foreign land: Social isolation and loneliness among older Asian migrants in New Zealand. Health and Social Care in the Community, 27, 740-747. DOI: 10.1111/hsc.12690.
  • Pekdoğan, S., & Kanak, M. (2022). Child temperament as a predictor of parents’ potential for emotional abuse. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 210, 330-334. DOI: 10.1097/NMD.0000000000001449.
  • Pilkington, P. D., Bishop, A., & Younan, R. (2021). Adverse childhood experiences and early maladaptive schemas in adulthood: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 28, 569-584. DOI: 10.1002/cpp.2533.
  • Pilkington, P., Younan, R., & Bishop, A. (2021). Early maladaptive schemas, suicidal ideation, and self-harm: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Affective Disorders Reports, 3, 100051. DOI: 0.1016/j.jadr.2020.100051.
  • Pinto-Gouveia, J., Castilho, P., Galhardo, A., & Cunha, M. (2006). Early maladaptive schemas and social phobia. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 30, 571-584. DOI: 10.1007/s10608-006-9027-8.
  • Philipsen, A., Lam, A. P., Breit, S., LÃcke, C., MÃller, H. H., & Matthies, S. (2017). Early maladaptive schemas in adult patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 9, 101-111. DOI: 10.1007/s12402-016-0211-8.
  • Plasencia, M. L., Alden, L. E., & Taylor, C. T. (2011). Differential effects of safety behaviour subtypes in social anxiety disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49, 665-675. DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2011.07.005.
  • Plasencia, M. L., Taylor, C. T., & Alden, L. E. (2016). Unmasking one's true self facilitates positive relational outcomes: Authenticity promotes social approach processes in social anxiety disorder. Clinical Psychological Science, 4, 1002-1014. DOI: 10.1177/2167702615622204
  • Pollock, D. C., Van Reken, R., & Pollock, M. V. (2017). Third culture kids: Growing up among worlds (3rd ed.). Nicholas Brealey Publishing
  • Rafaeli, E., Berstein, D. P., & Young, J. E. (2011). Schema therapy: Distinctive features. Routledge.
  • Rafaeli, E., Maurer, O., Lazarus, G., & Thoma, N. C. (2016). The self in schema therapy. In M. Kyrios, R. Moulding, G. Doron, S. S. Bhar, M. Nedeljkovic, & M. Mikulincer (Eds.), The self in understanding and treating psychological disorders (pp. 59-70). Cambridge University Press.
  • Rapee, R. M., & Heimberg, R. G. (1997). A cognitive-behavioral model of anxiety in social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 741-756. DOI: 10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00022-3.
  • Rodrigues, P. M., Marques, D. R., & Gomes, A. A. (2019). Differences in early maladaptive schemas between young adults displaying poor versus good sleep quality. Psychiatric Quarterly, 90, 733-746. DOI: 10.1007/s11126-019-09662-z.
  • Schlenker, B. R., & Leary, M. R. (1982). Social anxiety and self-presentation: A conceptualization model. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 641-669. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.92.3.641.
  • Segrin, C., Nevarez, N., Arroyo, A., & Harwood, J. (2013). Family of origin environment and adolescent bullying predict young adult loneliness. In A. Rokach (Ed.), Loneliness updated: Recent research on loneliness and how it affects our lives (pp.122-137). Routledge.
  • Sheffield, A., Waller, G., Emanuelli, F., Murray, J., & Meyer, C. (2005). Links between parenting and core beliefs: Preliminary psychometric validation of the Young Parenting Inventory. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 29, 787-802. DOI: 10.1007/s10608-005-4291-6.
  • Simeone-DiFrancesco, C., Roediger, E., Stevens, B. A. (2015). Schema therapy with couples: A practitioner's guide to healing. John Wiley and Sons.
  • Sippola, L. K. & Bukowksi, W. M. (1999). Self, other, and loneliness from a developmental perspective. In K. J. Rotenberg & S. Hymel (Eds.), Loneliness in childhood and adolescence (pp.280-295). Cambridge University Press.
  • Spithoven, A. W., Cacioppo, S., Goossens, L., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2019). Genetic contributions to loneliness and their relevance to the evolutionary theory of loneliness. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14, 376-396. DOI: 10.1177/1745691618812684.
  • Stewart, M. J., Makwarimba, E., Reutter, L. I., Veenstra, G., Raphael, D., & Love, R. (2009). Poverty, sense of belonging and experiences of social isolation. Journal of Poverty, 13, 173-195. DOI: 10.1080/10875540902841762.
  • Striegel-Moore, R. H., Silberstein, L. R., & Rodin, J. (1993). The social self in bulimia nervosa: Public self-consciousness, social anxiety, and perceived fraudulence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 297-303. DOI: 10.1037/0021-843X.102.2.297.
  • Sundag, J., Zens, C., Ascone, L., Thome, S., & Lincoln, T. M. (2018). Are schemas passed on? A study on the association between early maladaptive schemas in parents and their offspring and the putative translating mechanisms. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 46, 738-753. DOI: 10.1017/S1352465818000073.
  • Tan, E. C., Wang, K. T., & Cottrell, A. B. (2021). A systematic review of third culture kids empirical research. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 82, 81-98. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2021.03.002.
  • Teo, A. R., Stufflebam, K. W., & Kato, T. A. (2014). The intersection of culture and solitude: The hikikomori phenomenon in Japan. In R. J. Coplan & J. C. Bowler (Eds.), The handbook of solitude: Psychological perspectives on social isolation, social withdrawal, and being alone (pp.445-460). John Wiley and Sons.
  • Thimm, J. C., & Chang, M. (2022). Early maladaptive schemas and mental disorders in adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1-43. DOI: 10.1007/s41811-022-00149-7.
  • Tremblay, P. F., & Dozois, D. J. (2009). Another perspective on trait aggressiveness: Overlap with early maladaptive schemas. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 569-574. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2008.12.009.
  • Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2003). Isn't it fun to get the respect that we're going to deserve? Narcissism, social rejection, and aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 261-272. DOI: 10.1177/0146167202239051.
  • Van Genderen, H., Rijkeboer, M., & Arntz, A. (2012). Theoretical model: Schemas, coping styles, and modes. In M. van Vreeswijk, J. Broersen, & M. Nadort (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of schema therapy: Theory, research, and practice (pp.27-40). John Wiley and Sons.
  • Van Orden, K. A., Witte, T. K., Cukrowicz, K. C., Braithwaite, S. R., Selby, E. A., & Joiner, T. E. (2010). The interpersonal theory of suicide. Psychological Review, 117, 575-600. DOI: 10.1037/a0018697.
  • Van Vreeswijk, M., Broersen, J., & Schurink, G. (2014). Mindfulness and schema therapy: A practical guide. John Wiley and Sons.
  • Vanhalst, J., Luyckx, K., & Goossens, L. (2014). Experiencing loneliness in adolescence: A matter of individual characteristics, negative peer experiences, or both? Social Development, 23, 100-118. DOI: 10.1111/sode.12019.
  • Vieira, C., Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2023). Early maladaptive schemas and behavioural addictions: A systematic literature review. Clinical Psychology Review, 102340. DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2023.102340.
  • Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2007). A question of belonging: Race, social fit, and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 82-96. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.82
  • Wells, A., & Hackmann, A. (1993). Imagery and core beliefs in health anxiety: Content and origins. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 21, 265-273. DOI: 10.1017/S1352465800010511.
  • Williams, K. D. (2009). Ostracism: A temporal need-threat model. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 275-314. DOI: 10.1007/s00127-016-1178-7
  • Wilson, L. C., & Liss, M. (2023). Belonging and loneliness as mechanisms in the psychological impact of discrimination among transgender college students. Journal of LGBT Youth, 20, 705-723. DOI: 10.1080/19361653.2022.2049418.
  • Yalcin, O., Marais, I., Lee, C. W., & Correia, H. (2023). The YSQ-R: Predictive Validity and Comparison to the Short and Long Form Young Schema Questionnaire. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20, 1-14. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20031778.
  • Yang, K. (2019). Loneliness: A social problem. Routledge.
  • Yee, N. (2006). Motivations for play in online games. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 9, 772-775. DOI: 10.1089/cpb.2006.9.772.
  • Yoo, G., Park, J. H., & Jun, H. J. (2014). Early maladaptive schemas as predictors of interpersonal orientation and peer connectedness in university students. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 42*, 1377-1394. DOI: 10.2224/sbp.2014.42.8.1377.
  • Young, J. E. (1990). Cognitive therapy for personality disorders: A schema-focused approach. Practitioner's Resource Exchange.
  • Young, J. E. (1999). Cognitive therapy for personality disorders: A schema-focused approach (3rd ed.). Professional Resource Press.
  • Young, J. E., & Klosko, J. S. (1994). Reinventing your life: The breakthrough program to end negative behavior and feel great again. Plume.
  • Young, J. E., Klosko, J. S., & Weishaar, M. E. (2003). Schema therapy: A practitioner's guide. Guilford Press.
  • Young, J. E., Zangwill, W. M., & Behary, W. E. (2002). Combining EMDR and schema-focused therapy: The whole may be greater than the sum of the parts. In F. Shapiro (Ed.), EMDR as an integrative psychotherapy approach: Experts of diverse orientations explore the paradigm prism (pp. 181-208). American Psychological Association.
  • Young, S., & Bramham, J. (2012). Cognitive-behavioural therapy for ADHD in adolescents and adults: A psychological guide to practice. John Wiley and Sons.
  • Zentner, M., & Bates, J. E. (2008). Child temperament: An integrative review of concepts, research programs, and measures. European Journal of Developmental Science, 2, 7-37.

Why Psychology Tools?

Popular Pages

Get Support

Sign Up

We value your privacy

This site uses strictly necessary cookies to function. We do not use cookies for analytics, marketing, or tracking purposes. By clicking “OK”, you agree to the use of these essential cookies. Read our Cookie Policy