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Safety-Seeking Behaviors / Safety Behaviors

Safety-seeking behaviors are behaviors that are carried out (either overtly or covertly) in specific situations in order to prevent feared outcomes (Salkovskis, 1991). Many safety-seeking behaviors are helpful and adaptive when the concern is real and the behavior can genuinely reduce the danger, such as checking the temperature of the water before getting in the bath or looking both ways before crossing the road. However, when safety-seeking behaviors concern perceived threats rather than actual dangers they are either unnecessary or can serve to exacerbate and maintain the anxiety.
The identification of safety-seeking behaviors has helped to explain the paradoxical observation that people with anxiety disorders have repeated experiences indicating that their fear is not warranted, yet fail to learn from their experiences (Harvey, Watkins, Mansell, & Shafran, 2004; Clark, 1999). Salkovskis (1991) states:
“In order to account for the failure of anxious patients to take advantage of naturally occurring disconfirmations, the cognitive hypothesis postulates a functional and internally logical link between cognition and behaviour … That is, a person panicking because he believes that a catastrophe is imminent will do anything he believes he can do to prevent the catastrophe. The person afraid of fainting sits, the person afraid of having a heart attack refrains from exercising, and so on. By doing so, the patient not only experiences immediate relief, but also unwittingly ‘protects’ his or her belief of the potential for disaster associated with particular sensations. Each panic attack, rather than being experienced as a disconfirmation, becomes another example of nearly being overtaken by disaster; ‘I have been close to fainting so many times: I have to be careful, or one of these times I won’t be able to catch it.’ This means that the apparent failure of panic patients to take advantage of natural disconfirmations may be because the non-occurrence of feared catastrophes, when associated with safety seeking behaviour, does not constitute an actual disconfirmation, and may sometimes be perceived as confirmation of a ‘near miss.’ ”
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100 of 117 resources

Fight Or Flight Response

The fight or flight response is an automatic physiological reaction to an event that is perceived as stressful or frightening. The perception of threa ... https://www.psychologytools.com/resource/fight-or-flight-response/

Window Of Tolerance

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Assertive Communication

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Embracing Uncertainty

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[Free] Understanding Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

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Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Formulation

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Intolerance Of Uncertainty

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Activity Menu

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Vicious Cycle - Responses And Consequences

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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Formulation

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Social Anxiety Formulation

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Mastery Of Your Anxiety And Worry (Second Edition): Workbook

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CBT Model – Maintaining Processes – Past And Present

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Behavioral Experiment (Portrait Format)

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Behavioral Experiment

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Understanding Generalized Anxiety And Worry

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Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Low Self-Esteem (Fennell, 1997)

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CBT Model – Here And Now

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Understanding Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

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Fear Ladder

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Panic Formulation

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CBT Model – Maintaining Processes

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What Is Worry?

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Habituation

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Managing Social Anxiety (Third Edition): Workbook

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Unified Protocol for Transdiagnostic Treatment of Emotional Disorders (Second Edition): Client Workbook

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Treating Your OCD With Exposure And Response (Ritual) Prevention (Second Edition): Workbook

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Exposure Session Record

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Reclaiming Your Life From A Traumatic Experience (Second Edition): Workbook

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Understanding Health Anxiety

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Activity Planning

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Vicious Cycle - Costs And Benefits

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Unified Protocol for Transdiagnostic Treatment of Emotional Disorders (Second Edition): Therapist Guide

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OCD Hierarchy

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Understanding Social Anxiety

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Interoceptive Exposure

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Behavioral Activation Activity Planning Diary

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Audio Collection: Psychology Tools For Overcoming PTSD

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Mastery Of Your Anxiety And Panic (Fifth Edition): Workbook

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Reciprocal CBT Formulation

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CBT Model – Past And Present

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Exposure And Response (Ritual) Prevention For Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (Second Edition): Therapist Guide

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Mastery Of Your Anxiety And Worry (Second Edition): Therapist Guide

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What Keeps Social Anxiety Going?

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Exposures For Fear Of Uncertainty

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Exposure Practice Form

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Checking Certainty And Doubt

Psychologists have discovered interesting relationships between Checking, Certainty, And Doubt. This information handout contains an exercise helpful ... https://www.psychologytools.com/resource/checking-certainty-and-doubt/

Understanding Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

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Autonomic Nervous System

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Cognitive Behavioral Treatment of Childhood OCD: It's Only a False Alarm: Workbook

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Fight or Flight (CYP)

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Attention Training Experiment

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Self-Monitoring Record (Universal)

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CBT Appraisal Model

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Safety Behaviors

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Mastery Of Your Anxiety And Panic (Fifth Edition): Therapist Guide

Mastery Of Your Anxiety And Panic comes in two volumes. This page is for the Therapist Guide. Click on the following link to access the accompanying C ... https://www.psychologytools.com/resource/mastery-of-your-anxiety-and-panic-therapist-guide/

Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Health Anxiety (Salkovskis, Warwick, Deale, 2003)

Health anxiety is characterized by a preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious illness, and a high level of anxiety about health. People with h ... https://www.psychologytools.com/resource/cognitive-behavioral-model-of-health-anxiety-salkovskis-warwick-deale-2003/

Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD: Ehlers & Clark, 2000)

Anke Ehlers' & David Clark's Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is an influential account of the condition. The ... https://www.psychologytools.com/resource/cognitive-behavioral-model-of-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd-ehlers-clark-2000/

Prolonged Exposure Therapy For PTSD (Second Edition): Therapist Guide

Prolonged Exposure Therapy For PTSD comes in two volumes. This page is for the Therapist Guide. Click on the following link to access the accompanying ... https://www.psychologytools.com/resource/prolonged-exposure-therapy-for-ptsd-therapist-guide/

Uncertainty Beliefs – Experiment Record

Situations which are uncertain, novel, or ambiguous trigger a state of uncertainty. Evidence indicates that individuals who are dispositionally high i ... https://www.psychologytools.com/resource/uncertainty-beliefs-experiment-record/

Managing Social Anxiety (Third Edition): Therapist Guide

Managing Social Anxiety – A Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Approach comes in two volumes. This page is for the Therapist Guide. Click on the following ... https://www.psychologytools.com/resource/managing-social-anxiety-therapist-guide/

Pacing For Pain And Fatigue

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Your Stone Age Brain

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ABC Model

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Overcoming Your Eating Disorder: Workbook

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What Keeps Panic Going?

The "What Keeps It Going?" series is a set of one-page diagrams explaining how common mental health conditions are maintained. Friendly and concise, t ... https://www.psychologytools.com/resource/what-keeps-panic-going/

Understanding Panic

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Exposures For Fear Of Vomiting

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Facing Your Fears And Phobias

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Overcoming Eating Disorders (Second Edition): Therapist Guide

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Maximizing The Effectiveness Of Exposure Therapy

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What Keeps Fears And Phobias Going?

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Exposures For Fear Of Illness

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Avoidance Hierarchy (Archived)

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Exposures For Fear Of Body Sensations

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Cognitive Behavioral Treatment Of Childhood OCD: It's Only A False Alarm: Therapist Guide

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Panic Attack Record

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Process Focused Case Formulation

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What Are Safety Behaviors?

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Critical Care And PTSD

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Exposures For Fear Of Appearing Anxious

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Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD: Veale, 2004)

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Understanding Fears And Phobias

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Exposures For Fear Of Death

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Panic - Self-Monitoring Record

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Am I Experiencing Health Anxiety?

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Identifying The Meaning Of Body Sensations

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Activity Selection

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Understanding Psychosis

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Am I Experiencing Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)?

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Facing Your Fears (CYP)

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Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Insomnia (Harvey, 2002)

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Understanding Depersonalization And Derealization

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Starvation Syndrome – The Effects of Semi-Starvation

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Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Social Phobia (Clark, Wells, 1995)

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Am I Experiencing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)?

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Am I Experiencing Depression?

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Am I Experiencing Social Anxiety?

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Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Fear Of Body Sensations

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Recommended Reading

  • Helbig‐Lang, S., & Petermann, F. (2010). Tolerate or eliminate? A systematic review on the effects of safety behavior across anxiety disorders. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 17(3), 218-233.
  • Rachman, S., Radomsky, A. S., & Shafran, R. (2008). Safety behaviour: A reconsideration. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46(2), 163-173 archive.org
  • Salkovskis, P. M. (1991). The importance of behaviour in the maintenance of anxiety and panic: a cognitive account. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 19, 6-19
  • Salkovskis, P. M., Clark, D. M., Hackmann, A., Wells, A., Gelder, M. G. (1999). An experimental investigation of the role of safety-seeking behaviours in the maintenance of panic disorder with agoraphobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 559-574 archive.org
  • Thwaites, R., Freeston, M. H. (2005). Safety-seeking behaviours: Fact or function? How can we clinically differentiate between safety-seeking behaviours and adaptive coping strategies across anxiety disorders? Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 33, 177-188

What Are Safety Behaviors?

Blakey et al. (2019) review safety behaviors from an inhibitory learning standpoint and argue that safety behaviors interfere with safety learning in three ways:

  • they could prevent the violation of expectancies by attenuating the discrepancy between what the patient predicts will occur during an exposure task (i.e., catastrophe) and what actually occurs (i.e., no catastrophe);
  • safety behaviors might obstruct the generalization of safety-based associations by restricting safety learning to specific contexts;
  • they could impede the development of distress tolerance by obstructing patients from learning that they can persist in challenging tasks despite elevate levels of distress.

Although safety behaviors are labeled ‘behaviors’ they can also be internal processes or cognitive strategies, such as using distraction during an episode of panic, or rehearsing what you are going to say in social phobia. Helbig-Lang and Petermann (2010) give a two-dimensional account of the function and strategy of safety behaviors:

Function
Preventive Restorative
Strategy Behavioral Situational avoidance

Relying on safety signals

Subtle avoidance

Compulsive behavior carried out to prevent an increase in anxiety

Escape

Use of safety signals

Compulsive behavior carried out to decrease anxiety

Reassurance seeking

Cognitive Preparation Distraction/​focusing

Neutralizing

Thought suppression

Disorders That May Be Maintained by Safety-Seeking Behaviors

Harvey et al. (2004) propose that safety-seeking behavior is present in:

  • panic disorder with or without agoraphobia
  • specific phobia
  • social phobia
  • post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
  • obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)
  • body dysmorphic disorder
  • eating disorders
  • insomnia
  • psychosis

Helpful Questions for Assessing Safety-Seeking Behaviors

Some helpful questions for assessing safety-seeking behaviors include:

  • How do you respond when you feel threatened?
  • In situations where you feel anxious but can’t or don’t escape, what do you do to cope?
  • What are the short-term effects of coping in that way?
  • What would happen if you stopped using that safety behavior?

Treatment Approaches That Target Safety-Seeking Behaviors

The traditional approach to the treatment of anxiety is to expose the patient to the feared situation or stimulus with encouragement to drop the use of safety-seeking behaviors. Recent research has questioned whether the judicious use of safety behaviors might make exposure tasks more acceptable to patients, and might facilitate approach behaviors. Current evidence is mixed, with the authors of a 2019 trial concluding:

“… therapists may not need to be concerned if their patient is unwilling to immediately eliminate their safety behavior(s) as long as the patient explicitly tests their fear-based negative expectancies through direct and sustained confrontation with feared situations/​stimuli and also understands they should eliminate their use of safety behaviors as soon as they are willing” (Blakey et al., 2019).

References

  • Blakey, S. M., Abramowitz, J. S., Buchholz, J. L., Jessup, S. C., Jacoby, R. J., Reuman, L., & Pentel, K. Z. (2019). A randomized controlled trial of the judicious use of safety behaviors during exposure therapy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 112, 28–35.
  • Clark, D. M. (1999). Anxiety disorders: Why they persist and how to treat them. Behaviour Research and Therapy37(1), S5.
  • Harvey, A. G., Watkins, E., Mansell, W., & Shafran, R. (2004). Cognitive behavioural processes across psychological disorders: A transdiagnostic approach to research and treatment. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Helbig-Lang, S., & Petermann, F. (2010). Tolerate or eliminate? A systematic review on the effects of safety behavior across anxiety disorders. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 17(3), 218–233.
  • Salkovskis, P. M. (1991). The importance of behaviourin the maintenance of anxiety and panic: A cognitive account. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 19(1), 6–19.