Anxiety

"Should" Statements
Information handouts
A Guide To Emotions (Psychology Tools For Living Well)
Books & Chapters
ABC Model
Worksheets
Am I Experiencing Death Anxiety?
Exercises
Am I Experiencing Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)?
Exercises
Am I Experiencing Health Anxiety?
Exercises
Am I Experiencing Social Anxiety?
Exercises
Anxiety - Self-Monitoring Record
Worksheets
Anxiety Self-Monitoring Record (Archived)
Archived
Approach Instead Of Avoiding (Psychology Tools For Overcoming Panic)
Books & Chapters
Arbitrary Inference
Information handouts
Assertive Communication
Information handouts
Assertive Responses
Exercises
Attention Training Experiment
Exercises
Attention Training Practice Record
Exercises
Audio Collection: Psychology Tools For Developing Self-Compassion
Audio
Audio Collection: Psychology Tools For Mindfulness
Audio
Audio Collection: Psychology Tools For Relaxation
Audio
Autonomic Nervous System
Information handouts
Avoidance Hierarchy (Archived)
Archived
Balance
Information handouts
Behavioral Experiment
Worksheets
Behavioral Experiment (Portrait Format)
Worksheets
Behaviors In Panic (Psychology Tools For Overcoming Panic)
Books & Chapters
Being With Difficulty (Audio)
Audio
Body Scan (Audio)
Audio
Body Sensations In Panic (Psychology Tools For Overcoming Panic)
Books & Chapters
Boundaries - Self-Monitoring Record
Worksheets
Breathing To Calm The Body Sensations Of Panic (Psychology Tools For Overcoming Panic)
Books & Chapters
Catching Your Thoughts (CYP)
Worksheets
CBT Appraisal Model
Worksheets
CFT Compassion Formulation
Worksheets
Challenging Your Negative Thinking (Archived)
Archived
Classical Conditioning
Information handouts
Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Depersonalization (Hunter, Phillips, Chalder, Sierra, David, 2003)
Information handouts
Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Fear Of Body Sensations
Information handouts
Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD: Dugas, Gagnon, Ladouceur, Freeston, 1998)
Information handouts
Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Health Anxiety (Salkovskis, Warwick, Deale, 2003)
Information handouts
Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Intolerance Of Uncertainty (Hebert, Dugas, 2019)
Information handouts
Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Panic (Clark, 1986)
Information handouts
Cognitive Behavioral Model of Perfectionism (Shafran, Egan, Wade, 2010)
Information handouts
Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Persistent Postural-Perceptual Dizziness (PPPD: Whalley, Cane, 2017)
Information handouts
Cognitive Behavioral Model Of Social Phobia (Clark, Wells, 1995)
Information handouts
Cognitive Distortions – Unhelpful Thinking Styles (Common)
Information handouts
Cognitive Distortions – Unhelpful Thinking Styles (Extended)
Information handouts
Combined Relaxation Exercise (Audio)
Audio
Compassionate Thought Challenging Record
Worksheets
Coping With Body Sensations (Psychology Tools For Overcoming Panic)
Books & Chapters
Core Belief Magnet Metaphor
Information handouts
Court Trial Thought Challenging Record (Archived)
Archived
Critical Care And PTSD
Information handouts
Decatastrophizing
Exercises
Developing Psychological Flexibility
Information handouts
Disqualifying The Positive
Information handouts
Embracing Uncertainty
Exercises
Emotional Reasoning
Information handouts
Emotions In Panic (Psychology Tools For Overcoming Panic)
Books & Chapters
Emotions Motivate Actions
Information handouts
Evaluating Unhelpful Automatic Thoughts
Guides
Exercise For Mental Health
Information handouts
Exposure Practice Form
Exercises
Exposure Session Record
Worksheets
Exposures For Fear Of Appearing Anxious
Information handouts
Exposures For Fear Of Body Sensations
Information handouts
Exposures For Fear Of Breathlessness
Information handouts
Exposures For Fear Of Death
Information handouts
Exposures For Fear Of Flying
Information handouts
Exposures For Fear Of Heights
Information handouts
Exposures For Fear Of Illness
Information handouts
Exposures For Fear Of Losing Control Of Your Mind
Information handouts
Exposures For Fear Of Uncertainty
Information handouts
Exposures For Fear Of Vomiting
Information handouts
Externalizing
Information handouts
Facing Your Fears (CYP)
Exercises
Facing Your Fears And Phobias
Guides
Fear Ladder
Worksheets
Fight or Flight (CYP)
Information handouts
Fight Or Flight Response
Information handouts
Grounding Statements (Audio)
Audio
Grounding Techniques
Exercises
Grounding Techniques Menu
Information handouts
Habituation
Information handouts
Health Anxiety - Self-Monitoring Record
Worksheets
Health Anxiety Formulation
Information handouts
Health Anxiety Self-Monitoring Record (Archived)
Archived
Health Anxiety Thought Record
Worksheets
How Breathing Affects Feelings
Information handouts
How Does This All Add Up To A Panic Attack? (Psychology Tools For Overcoming Panic)
Books & Chapters
How Is Panic Disorder Different From A Panic Attack? (Psychology Tools For Overcoming Panic)
Books & Chapters
How Much Do You Know About Panic? (Psychology Tools For Overcoming Panic)
Books & Chapters
How Your Body Responds To Stress
Information handouts
Identifying The Meaning Of Body Sensations
Worksheets
Interoceptive Exposure
Exercises
Interpersonal Beliefs And Styles
Worksheets
Intolerance Of Uncertainty
Information handouts
Introduction To CBT (Psychology Tools For Overcoming Panic)
Books & Chapters
Intrusive Memory Record
Worksheets
Jumping To Conclusions
Information handouts
Learning To Relax (CYP)
Exercises
Living With Worry And Anxiety Amidst Global Uncertainty
Guides
Links to external resources
Psychology Tools makes every effort to check external links and review their content. However, we are not responsible for the quality or content of external links and cannot guarantee that these links will work all of the time.
Assessment
- Brief Fear Of Negative Evaluation Scale | Leary | 1983
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Fear Questionnaire (FQ) (Phobia)
| Marks, Matthews | 1979
- Marks, I. M., & Mathews, A. M. (1979). Brief standard self-rating for phobic patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 17(3), 263-267.
- Scale
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item (GAD-7)
| Spitzer, Kroenke, Williams, Lowe | 2006
- Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JBW, Lowe B. A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder. Arch Inern Med. 2006;166:1092-1097.
- Scale
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Hamilton Rating Scale For Anxiety (HAM-A)
| Hamilton | 1959
- Hamilton, M. (1959).The assessment of anxiety states by rating. British Journal of Medical Psychology 32, 50-55.
- Scale
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Health Anxiety Inventory (HAI)
| Salkovskis, Rimes, Warwick, Clark | 2002
- Scale
- Reference Salkovskis, P. M., Rimes, K. A., Warwick, H. M. C., & Clark, D. M. (2002). The Health Anxiety Inventory: development and validation of scales for the measurement of health anxiety and hypochondriasis. Psychological Medicine, 32(05), 843-853.
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Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS-SR)
| Liebowitz | 1987
- Scale
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Mobility Inventory For Agoraphobia(MIA)
| Chambless, Caputo, Jasin, Gracely, Williams | 1985
- Chambless, D. L., Caputo, G. C., Jasin, S. E., Gracely, E. J., & Williams, C. (1985). The mobility inventory for agoraphobia. Behaviour research and therapy, 23(1), 35-44.
- Scale
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Panic Disorder Severity Scale (PDSS)
| Shear, Brown, Barlow, Money, Sholomskas, Woods, Gorman, Papp | 1997
- Shear, M. K., Brown, T. A., Barlow, D. H., Money, R., Sholomskas, D. E., Woods, S. W., … & Papp, L. A. (1997). Multicenter collaborative panic disorder severity scale. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(11), 1571-1575.
- Scale
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Penn State Worry Questionnaire
| Meyer, Miller, Metzger, Borkovec | 1990
- Meyer, T. J., Miller, M. L., Metzger, R. L., & Borkovec, T. D. (1990). Development and validation of the penn state worry questionnaire. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28(6), 487-495.
- Scale archive.org
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Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale
| Spence | 1998
- Spence, S. H. (1998). A measure of anxiety symptoms among children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36 (5), 545-566.
- Scale
- Scale website link
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Severity Measure For Agoraphobia
| Craske, Wittchen, Bogels, Stein, Andrews, Lebu | 2013
- Scale – Adult
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Severity Measure For Generalized Anxiety Disorder
| Craske, Wittchen, Bogels, Stein, Andrews, Lebeu | 2013
- Scale – Adult
- Scale – Child Age 11-17
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Severity Measure For Panic Disorder
| Craske, Wittchen, Bogels, Stein, Andrews, Lebeu | 2013
- Scale – Adult
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Severity Measure For Social Anxiety Disorder
| Craske, Wittchen, Bogels, Stein, Andrews, Lebeu | 2013
- Scale – Adult
- Scale – Child Age 11-17
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Severity Measure For Specific Phobia
| Craske, Wittchen, Bogels, Stein, Andrews, Lebeu | 2013
- Scale – Adult
- Scale – Child Age 11-17
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Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)
| Connor, Davidson, Churchill, Sherwood, Weisler, Foa | 2000
- Scale
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Social Phobia Scale
| Mattick, Clarke | 1995
- Scale
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Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale
| Leary | 1983
- Scale
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Oxford - Agoraphobic Avoidance Scale (O-AS)
| Lambe, S., Bird, J. C., Loe, B. S., Rosebrock, L., Kabir, T., Petit, A., ... & Freeman, D. | 2023
- Scale
- Reference Lambe, S., Bird, J. C., Loe, B. S., Rosebrock, L., Kabir, T., Petit, A., ... & Freeman, D. (2023). The Oxford agoraphobic avoidance scale. Psychological Medicine, 53(4), 1233-1243.
Guides
- Anxiety And Substance Use | NDARC: Mills, Marel, Baker, Teesson, Dore, Kay-Lambkin, Manns, Triningham | 2011
- Health Anxiety – A Self-Help Guide | Maunder, Cameron, Young, Leyland | 2015
- Phobia Self-Help Booklet | Anne Joice, Jim White | 2006
- Social Anxiety (An NHS Self-Help Guide) | Lesley Maunder, Lorna Cameron | 2020
- Working To Overcome Anxiety (Workbook) | Lucock, Noble, Pallister, Horsefield, Padgett, Westley, Atha, Khan | 2015
- Specific phobia: patient treatment manual | Clinical Research Unit for Anxiety and Depression (CRUfAD)
Information Handouts
Panic
- Progressive Muscle Relaxation
- Panic self-help booklet by | Charles Young, Alison Hunte, Jessica Newell, Pat Valian | 2011
- Panic attacks: what they are and how to stop the next one | Glasgow STEPS
Social anxiety
- What is social anxiety?
- What can be done about social anxiety?
- Calming technique: breathing
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Procrastination (Information Handouts)
| Centre For Clinical Interventions
- What Is Procrastination?
- Vicious Cycle of Procrastination
- Dismissing Procrastination Excuses
- Practical Strategies to Stop Procrastination
- Procrastination: Unhelpful Rules and Assumptions
- Tolerating Discomfort
- Action Plan
-
Anxiety - Information sheets
| Centre For Clinical Interventions
- What is anxiety?
- The vicious cycle of anxiety
- Analysing your thinking
- Unhelpful thinking styles
- Behavioral experiments
- Situational exposure
- What are safety behaviours?
- Breathing retraining
- Progressive muscle relaxation
- Stress and anxiety
- Coping with stress
- Anxiety and exercise
- What is needle phobia?
- Overcoming needle phobia
- CBT for anxiety
Information (Professional)
- Assertive defense of the self (A more effective treatment focus for social phobia?) | Padesky | 1985
- Interoceptive Exposure Definition | White, Basden, Barlow
- Task Concentration Training Definition | Bögels
Presentations
- New developments in exposure therapy for anxiety and related disorders: the inhibitory learning approach | Blakey, Abramowitz | 2018
- Desirable difficulties: optimizing exposure therapy for anxiety through inhibitory learning | Abramowitz, Jacoby, Blakey | 2018
- GAD – a cognitive model and treatment
- Bringing Specificity to Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Conceptualization and Treatment of GAD using Intolerance of Uncertainty as the Theme of Threat | Robichaud | 2013
- Why worry? Key cognitive processes that maintain worry and Generalised Anxiety Disorder | Colette Hirsch
Self-Help Programmes
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When Panic Attacks (Workbook)
| Centre For Clinical Interventions | 2023
- Module 1: Overview Of Panic
- Module 2: What Keeps Panic Disorder Going
- Module 3: Overcoming Thoughts About Panic
- Module 4: Coping With Physical Alarms
- Module 5: Facing Feared Situations
- Module 6: Dropping Safety Behaviors
- Module 7: Maintaining Your Gains
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Stepping Out Of Social Anxiety (Workbook)
| Centre For Clinical Interventions | 2020
- Module 1: Understanding Social Anxiety
- Module 2: Overcoming Negative Thinking
- Module 3: Overcoming Avoidance
- Module 4: Behavioral Experiment Stepladders
- Module 5: Safety Behaviors
- Module 6: The Role Of Attention
- Module 7: How I Think I Appear To Others
- Module 8: Challenging Core Beliefs
- Module 9: Strengthening New Core Beliefs
- Module 10: Maintaining Your Gains And Dealing With Setbacks
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What? Me Worry? (Workbook)
| Centre For Clinical Interventions | 2015
- Module 1: Overview Of Generalized Anxiety
- Module 2: Overview Of Worrying
- Module 3: Challenging Uncontrollability Beliefs
- Module 4: Attention Training
- Module 5: Challenging Danger Beliefs
- Module 6: Challenging Positive Beliefs
- Module 7: Problem-Solving
- Module 8: Helpful Thinking
- Module 9: Accepting Uncertainty
- Module 10: Self Management Plan
Treatment Guide
- NICE Guidelines For GAD And Panic | NICE | 2011
- NICE Guidelines For Social Anxiety Disorder | NICE | 2013
- Comprehensive cognitive behavior therapy for social phobia: a treatment manual | Ledley, Foa, Huppert, Clark | 2006
- Panic disorder: Manual for Improving Access to Psychological Therapy (IAPT) High intensity CBT therapists. | David Clark, Paul Salkovskis | 2009
- A brief cognitive-behavioural treatment for social anxiety disorder | Eric P. Morris, David Mensink, and Sherry H. Stewart
- Canadian clinical practice guidelines for the management of anxiety, posttraumatic stress and obsessive-compulsive disorders (2014) | Katzman et al | 2014
- Comprehensive cognitive behavior therapy for social phobia: a treatment manual | Deborah Roth Ledley, Edna B. Foa, Jonathan D. Huppert (in consultation with David M. Clark) | 2005
- The CARS cognitive behavioral treatment for anxiety manual | Center for Adolescent Research in Schools | 2014
- Cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety: an application of the F.E.A.R. model for adults | Stephen Lenz
Worksheets
Generalized anxiety and mindfulness
- Letting go with mindfulness
- Challenging intolerance of uncertainty
Social anxiety
- Monitoring your relaxation level
-
Anxiety (Worksheets)
| Centre For Clinical Interventions
- Anxiety Symptoms Record
- Breathing Rate Record
- Monitoring Relaxation
- Situational Exposure Diary
- Making The Connection
- Thought Diary 1
- Thought Diary 2
- Thought Diary 3
- Thought Diary (Tri-Fold)
- Behavioral Experiment Worksheet
- Procrastination Cycle | Centre For Clinical Intervention
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Anxiety - Worksheets
| Centre For Clinical Interventions
- Anxiety symptoms record
- Breathing rate record
- Monitoring relaxation
- Situational exposure diary
- Making the connection
- Thought diary 1
- Thought diary 2
- Thought diary 3
- Thought diary (tri-fold)
- Behavioral experiment worksheet
Recommended Reading
- Task concentration training and fear of blushing | Bögels, Mulkens, De Jong | 1997
General
- Clark, D. M. (1999). Anxiety disorders: why they persist and how to treat them. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, S5-S27
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
- Behar, E., DiMarco, I. D., Hekler, E. B., Mohlman, J., Staples, A. M. (2009). Current theoretical models of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): Conceptual review and treatment implications. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 1011-1023
- Bottesi, G., Ghisi, M., Carraro, E., Barclay, N., Payne, R., & Freeston, M. H. (2016). Revising the Intolerance of Uncertainty Model of Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Evidence from UK and Italian Undergraduate Samples.Frontiers in psychology,7, 1723
- Hirsch, C. R., Beale, S., Grey, N., & Liness, S. (2019). Approaching cognitive behavior therapy for generalized anxiety disorder from a cognitive process perspective. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 796.
- Milne, S., Lomax, C., & Freeston, M. H. (2019). A review of the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and threat appraisal in anxiety. the Cognitive Behaviour Therapist, 12.
- Dugas, M. J., Gagnon, F., Ladouceur, R., & Freeston, M. H. (1998). Generalized anxiety disorder: A preliminary test of a conceptual model.Behaviour research and therapy,36(2), 215-226.
- Borkovec, T. D., Alcaine, O., & Behar, E. (2004). Avoidance theory of worry and generalized anxiety disorder.Generalized anxiety disorder: Advances in research and practice,2004.
- Hjemdal, O., Hagen, R., Nordahl, H. M., & Wells, A. (2013). Metacognitive therapy for generalized anxiety disorder: Nature, evidence and an individual case illustration.Cognitive and Behavioral Practice,20(3), 301-313
- Hjemdal, O., Hagen, R., Nordahl, H. M., & Wells, A. (2013). Metacognitive therapy for generalized anxiety disorder: Nature, evidence and an individual case illustration.Cognitive and Behavioral Practice,20(3), 301-313.
- Wells, A. (1995). Meta-cognition and worry: A cognitive model of generalized anxiety disorder.Behavioural and cognitive psychotherapy,23(3), 301-320
- Fresco, D. M., Mennin, D. S., Heimberg, R. G., & Ritter, M. (2013). Emotion regulation therapy for generalized anxiety disorder.Cognitive and Behavioral Practice,20(3), 282-300 nih.gov
- Mennin, D. S., Heimberg, R. G., Turk, C. L., & Fresco, D. M. (2002). Applying an emotion regulation framework to integrative approaches to generalized anxiety disorder.Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice,9(1), 85-90
- Roemer, L., & Orsillo, S. M. (2002). Expanding our conceptualization of and treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: Integrating mindfulness/acceptance‐based approaches with existing cognitive‐behavioral models.Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice,9(1), 54-68
- Roemer, L., Salters, K., Raffa, S. D., & Orsillo, S. M. (2005). Fear and avoidance of internal experiences in GAD: Preliminary tests of a conceptual model.Cognitive Therapy and Research,29(1), 71-88.
Health anxiety
- Asmundson, G. J. G., Abramowitz, J. S., Richter, A. A., Whedon, M. (2010). Health anxiety: current perspectives and future directions. Current Psychiatry Reports, 12, 306-312
- Furer, P., Walker, J. R. (2008). Death anxiety: A cognitive behavioural approach. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 22(2), 167-182
- Salkovskis, P. M., Warwick, H. M. C., Deale, A. C. (2003). Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment for Severe and Persistent Health Anxiety (Hypochondriasis). Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 3, 353-367 btci.edina.clockss.org
- Walker, J. R., Furer, P. (2008). Interoceptive exposure in the treatment of health anxiety and hypochondirasis. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 22(4), 366-378
Panic disorder
- Clark, D. A. (1999). Anxiety disorders: Why they persist and how to treat them. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, S5-S27
- Huppert, J. D., & Baker-Morissette, S. L. (2003). Beyond the manual: The insider’s guide to panic control treatment.Cognitive and Behavioral Practice,10(1), 2-13.
- Schmidt, N. B., Woolaway-Bickel, K., Trakowski, J. et al. (2000). Dismantling cognitive-behavioural treatment for panic disorder: Questioning the utility of breathing retraining. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(3), 417-424
- Wells, A. (1997). Cognitive Therapy of Anxiety Disorders. Chichester: Wiley.
Social Anxiety Disorder
- Clark, D. M. (2001). A cognitive perspective on social phobia
- Moscovitch, D. A. (2009). What is the core fear in social phobia? A new model to facilitate individualized case conceptualization and treatment. Cognitive and Behavioural Practice, 16. 123-134
- Wild, Hackmann, Clark (2008). Rescripting early memories linked to negative images in social phobia: a pilot study. Behaviour Therapy, 39(1), 47-56.
- Veale, D. (2003). Treatment of social phobia. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 9, 258-264
- Warnock-Parkes, E., Wild, J., Stott, R., Grey, N., Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2017). Seeing is believing: Using video feedback in cognitive therapy for social anxiety disorder. Cognitive and behavioral practice, 24(2), 245-255. view
- Warnock-Parkes, E., Wild, J., Thew, G., Kerr, A., Grey, N., & Clark, D. (2022). ‘I’m unlikeable, boring, weird, foolish, inferior, inadequate’: How to address the persistent negative self-evaluations that are central to social anxiety disorder with cognitive therapy. The Cognitive Behaviour Therapist, 15, E56. doi:10.1017/S1754470X22000496 view
What Is Anxiety?
Signs and Symptoms of Anxiety Disorders
Different anxiety disorders are characterized by various foci of concern.
- Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is characterized by excessive worry about hypothetical future events.
- Health anxiety is characterized by concern about one’s health or illness.
- Panic attacks are characterized by an abrupt surge or intense fear.
- Specific phobia is characterized by the ability for a specific object or situation to provoke marked fear or anxiety.
- Social anxiety disorder is characterized by a fear of social situations in which the individual may be exposed to possible scrutiny.
In addition to disorder-specific cognitive content, individuals experiencing anxiety disorders are likely to experience physical symptoms of anxiety including:
- palpitations or accelerated heart rate
- sweating
- trembling or shaking
- dry mouth
- difficulty breathing
- a feeling of choking
- nausea or abdominal discomfort
- dizziness
- derealization or depersonalization
- fear of losing control or passing out
- fear of dying
- hot flushes or cold chills
- numbness or tingling
- blushing
- fear of vomiting
- urgency or fear of urination or defecation
Psychological Models and Theories of Anxiety
One broad conceptualization of anxiety can be summarized by an ‘anxiety equation’ (Beck, Emery, & Greenberg, 1985; Salkovskis, Forrester, & Richards, 1998):
Anxiety = (perceived probability of therapy × perceived cost or awfulness of danger)
÷ (perceived ability to cope + perceived ‘rescue factors’)
Disorder-specific ‘CBT for anxiety’ cognitive models have been developed for all of the anxiety disorders. These are helpful in that they direct the therapist’s attention toward key interpretations and behaviors that act to perpetuate the anxiety disorders. For example, the critical mechanism that Clark identified in the cognitive model of panic (1986) is that body sensations are misinterpreted catastrophically as signs of danger, with concomitant effects upon emotions, behavior, and secondary cognitions.
Evidence-Based Psychological Approaches for Working with Anxiety
Cognitive behavior therapy has a strong evidence base for treating all of the anxiety disorders. Key components of CBT for anxiety interventions include exposure to the feared situations or stimulus, and an experimental approach to test the accuracy of beliefs.
Resources for Working with Anxiety
Psychology Tools resources available for working therapeutically with anxiety may include:
- psychological models of anxiety
- information handouts for anxious patients
- exercises for anxiety
- CBT worksheets for anxiety
- self-help programs for anxiety including a guide to overcoming panic attacks and panic disorder
References
- Beck, A. T., Emery, G., & Greenberg, R. L. (1985). Anxiety disorders and phobias: A cognitive perspective. New York: Basic Books.
- Clark, D. M. (1986). A cognitive approach to panic. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 24(4), 461–470.
- Salkovskis, P. M., Forrester, E., & Richards, C. (1998). Cognitive–behavioral approach to understanding obsessional thinking. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 173(S35), 53–63.