Self-Harm and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors
ABC Model
Worksheets
All-Or-Nothing Thinking
Information handouts
Grounding Objects (Audio)
Audio
Grounding Statements (Audio)
Audio
Safety Plan
Exercises
Assessment
Assessment measures
- Acquired Capability for Suicide Scale – Fearlessness About Death (ACSS-FAD) | Ribeiro, Witte, Van Orden, Selby, Gordon, Bender, Joiner | 2014
- Scale download archived copy
- Psychometrics download
- Ribeiro, J. D., Witte, T. K., Van Orden, K. A., Selby, E. A., Gordon, K. H., Bender, T. W., & Joiner Jr, T. E. (2014). Fearlessness about death: The psychometric properties and construct validity of the revision to the Acquired Capability for Suicide Scale. Psychological assessment, 26(1), 115.
- Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale (C-SSRS) | Posner, Brent, Lucas, Gould, Stanley, Brown, Fisher, Zelazny, Burke, Oquendo, Mann | 2008
- Full scale for healthcare professionals lifetime/recent download archived copy
- Columbia Lighthouse Project (formerly the Center for Suicide Risk Assessment) link
- Posner, K., Brent, D., Lucas, C., Gould, M., Stanley, B., Brown, G., … & Mann, J. (2008). Columbia-suicide severity rating scale (C-SSRS). New York, NY: Columbia University Medical Center.
- Interpersonal Needs Questionnaire (INQ-15) | Van Orden, Cukrowicz, Wittered, Joiner | 2012
- Scale download archived copy
- Psychometrics download
- Van Orden, K. A., Cukrowicz, K. C., Witte, T. K., & Joiner Jr, T. E. (2012). Thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness: Construct validity and psychometric properties of the Interpersonal Needs Questionnaire. Psychological assessment, 24(1), 197.
- Non-Suicidal Self-Injury Assessment Tool (NSSI-AT) | Whitlock, Exner-Cortens, Purington | 2014
- Brief version download archived copy
- Full version download archived copy
- Severity assessment download archived copy
- Whitlock, J.L., Exner-Cortens, D. & Purington, A. (2014). Validity and reliability of the non-suicidal self-injury assessment test (NSSI-AT). Psychological Assessment, 26(3): 935-946.
- Self-Injurious Thoughts And Behaviors Interview (SITBI) | Nock, Holmberg, Photos, Michel | 2007
- SITBI – Long form download archived copy
- SITBI – Short form download archived copy
- Nock, M. K., Holmberg, E. B., Photos, V. I. , & Michel, B. D. (2007). The Self-Injurious Thoughts and Behaviors Interview: Development, reliability, and validity in an adolescent sample. Psychological Assessment, 19, 309-317. download
- Suicidal Behaviors Questionnaire – Revised (SBQ-R) | Osman, Bagge, Gutierrez, Konick, Kopper, Barrios | 2001
- Scale download archived copy
- Osman, A., Bagge, C. L., Gutierrez, P. M., Konick, L. C., Kopper, B. A., & Barrios, F. X. (2001). The Suicidal Behaviors Questionnaire-Revised (SBQ-R): validation with clinical and nonclinical samples. Assessment, 8(4), 443-454.
Guides
- Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression: clinical guide | Centre for Suicide Research, University of Oxford download archived copy
- Suicide risk assessment guide | Veterans Association download archived copy
- Suicide risk assessment guide | Canadian Patient Safety Institute
downloadarchived copy - Suicide assessment fact sheet | American Counseling Association download archived copy
Intervention
Information for professionals
- Risk assessment packet | Joiner Lab download archived copy
- Self-harm, suicide, and risk: a summary | Royal College of Psychiatrists | 2010 download archived copy
- Assessment and treatment of patients with suicidal behaviors: practice guideline | American Psychiatric Association, Jacobs, Baldessarini, Conwell, Fawcett, Horton, Meltzer, Pfeffer, Simon | 2003 download archived copy
- Assessing and treating suicidal behaviors: a quick reference guide | American Psychiatric Association | 2003 download archived copy
- Risk and protective factors for suicide and suicidal behavior: fact sheet | American Psychological Association Working Group on Suicide Risk Assessment Resources download archived copy
- Self-harm and suicidality | Janina Fischer download archived copy
Information Handouts
General
- The truth about self-harm: for young people and their friends and families | Mental Health Foundation download archived copy
- Alternatives to self-harm and distraction techniques | Royal College Of Psychiatrists
download - archived copy
- Self-harm: the ‘secret’ self | SANE download archived copy
- Deliberate self-harm and suicide fact sheet | Living Is For Everyone
downloadarchived copy - Help is at hand: a resource for people bereaved by suicide and other sudden, traumatic death | Hawton, Simkin | 2010 download archived copy
- The Hurt Yourself Less Workbook | Dace, Faulkner, Frost, Parker, Pembroke, Smith | 1998 download archived copy
Self-Injury basics, myths, and facts
- What is self-injury? | Whitlock | 2010 download archived copy
- Top 15 misconceptions of self-injury | Caicedo, Whitlock | 2009 download archived copy
- How does self-injury change feelings? | Franklin | 2014 download archived copy
- What role do emotions play in non-suicidal self-injury? | Prussien, Rosenbaum, Whitlock download archived copy
- What’s the relationship? Non-suicidal self-injury and eating disorders | Ernhout, Babington, Childs | 2015 download archived copy
- The relationship between non-suicidal self-injury and suicide | Whitlock, Minton, Babington, Ernhout | 2015 download archived copy
Coping
- Coping: stress management strategies download archived copy
- Distraction techniques and alternative coping strategies (for self-harm) | Kilburn, Whitlock | 2009 download archived copy
- Finding your voice: talking about self-injury download archived copy
- Telling family and friends download archived copy
- What is emotion regulation and how do we do it? download archived copy
Detection, intervention and treatment
- Therapy: myths and misconceptions download archived copy
- Therapy: what to expect download archived copy
- Understanding and using the stages of change to assess your own progress (for individuals who self-injure) download archived copy
- Understanding the stages of change model (for parents and other caring adults) download archived copy
- What role do emotions play in non-suicidal self-injury? | Prussien, Rosenbaum, Whitlock download archived copy
- What’s the relationship? Non-suicidal self-injury and eating disorders | Ernhout, Babington, Childs | 2015 download archived copy
- The relationship between non-suicidal self-injury and suicide | Whitlock, Minton, Babington, Ernhout | 2015 download archived copy
- Bringing up self-injury with your clients download archived copy
Media
- Self-injury in the media download archived copy
- What is the link? The relationship between non-suicidal self-injury and social media download archived copy
Schools
- Non-suicidal self-injury in schools: developing a school protocol download archived copy
- Top 15 misconceptions of self-injury | Caicedo, Whitlock | 2009 download archived copy
- Self-injury in the media download archived copy
- Information for patients: what you need to know about self-injury download archived copy
- Respectful curiosity download archived copy
- Bringing up self-injury with your clients download archived copy
- How does self-injury change feelings? | Franklin | 2014 download archived copy
- The relationship between non-suicidal self-injury and suicide | Whitlock, Minton, Babington, Ernhout | 2015 download archived copy
- Connectedness and suicide prevention in college settings: directions and implications for practice download archived copy
- What is the link? The relationship between non-suicidal self-injury and social media download archived copy
Recovery
- Recovering from self-injury download archived copy
- Understanding and using the stages of change to assess your own progress (for individuals who self-injure) download archived copy
- Coping: stress management strategies download archived copy
- Distraction techniques and alternative coping strategies (for self-harm) | Kilburn, Whitlock | 2009 download archived copy
- Therapy: myths and misconceptions download archived copy
- Therapy: what to expect download archived copy
- Finding your voice: talking about self-injury download archived copy
- Wounds heal but scars remain: responding when someone notices and asks about your past self-injury download archived copy
Disclosure
- Finding your voice: talking about self-injury download archived copy
- Wounds heal but scars remain: responding when someone notices and asks about your past self-injury download archived copy
- Reaching out for help: talking about ongoing self-injury download archived copy
Parenting strategies and self-injury
- Information for parents: what you need to know download archived copy
- Dealing with power struggles download archived copy
- Family policies: safety concerns and contracts download archived copy
- For parents: the importance of self-care download archived copy
- Positive communication strategies download archived copy
- Respectful curiosity download archived copy
- Telling family and friends download archived copy
- Understanding and using the stages of change model download archived copy
- How does self-injury change feelings? download archived copy
- What is the link? The relationship between non-suicidal self-injury and social media download archived copy
Presentations
- The Safety Planning Intervention to Reduce Suicide Risk for People with SMI | Stanley & Brown | 2020 download archived copy
- Using the interpersonal theory of suicide to guide risk assessment, crisis management, and intervention with suicidal clients | Van Orden | 2013
downloadarchived copy - Why people die by suicide | Thomas Joiner | 2012 download archived copy
- Empowering clients to thrive despite their desire for death | Barnes, Sorensen, Smith, Borges, Walser | 2018 download archived copy
Recommended Reading
- Brown, G. K., & Jager-Hyman, S. (2014). Evidence-based psychotherapies for suicide prevention: future directions. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 47(3), S186-S194 download archived copy
- Comtois, K. A., & Linehan, M. M. (2006). Psychosocial treatments of suicidal behaviors: A practice‐friendly review. Journal of clinical psychology, 62(2), 161-170
downloadarchived copy - Joiner, T. (2007). Why people die by suicide. Harvard University Press.
- Rudd, M. D., Berman, A. L., Joiner, T. E., Nock, M. K., Silverman, M. M., Mandrusiak, M., … & Witte, T. (2006). Warning signs for suicide: Theory, research, and clinical applications. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 36(3), 255-262 download archived copy
- Sheard, T., Evans, J., Cash, D., Hicks, J., King, A., Morgan, N., … & Slinn, R. (2000). A CAT‐derived one to three session intervention for repeated deliberate self‐harm: A description of the model and initial experience of trainee psychiatrists in using it. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 73(2), 179-196.
- Stanley, B., & Brown, G. K. (2012). Safety planning intervention: a brief intervention to mitigate suicide risk. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 19(2), 256-264
downloadarchived copy - Van Orden, K. A., Witte, T. K., Cukrowicz, K. C., Braithwaite, S. R., Selby, E. A., & Joiner Jr, T. E. (2010). The interpersonal theory of suicide. Psychological Review, 117(2), 575 download
What Are Self-Harm And Suicide?
Signs And Symptoms Associated with Self-Harm and Suicide
Parasuicidal behavior is defined as a deliberate destruction of body tissue, with or without suicidal intent (Kreitman, 1977) and may include a clear intent to die, no intent to die, or degrees of ambivalence about the intent to die.
Deliberate self-harm (DSH) is a form of parasuicidal behavior that involves no intent to die. Not everyone who engages in DSH is suicidal or has attempted suicide (Kessler, Borges, & Walters, 1999; Velamoor & Cernovsky, 1992).
Conceptualized in CBT terms self-harm is the behavioral consequence of distressing thoughts and emotions. Individuals who self-harm may be experiencing high levels of affect and often have few or ineffective coping strategies.
Psychological Models and Theory of Self-Harm and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors
There are a number of psychological models which address self-harm and suicidal thoughts and behaviors. These include:
- Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), which views suicide and self-harm as the product of emotional dysregulation. Linehan views emotional dysregulation (the inability to change or regulate emotional cues, experiences, actions, verbal or nonverbal responses) as a product of an interaction between biological vulnerability and an invalidating environment (Linehan, 2014).
- Joiner’s Interpersonal Theory of Suicidal Behavior (Joiner, 2005; Van Orden et al., 2010), which proposes that suicidal desire is caused by “thwarted belongingness” and “perceived burdensomeness” (and hopelessness about these states). The model also proposes that the desire to engage in suicidal behavior is separate from the capacity to engage in suicidal behavior—capability is said to emerge in response to repeated exposures to physically painful and/or fear-inducing experiences.
- The Experiential Avoidance Model of deliberate self-harm (Chapman, Gratz, & Brown, 2006) proposes that deliberate self-harm is maintained by negative reinforcement in the form of escape from or avoidance of negative emotional experiences.
- The hopelessness theory of suicidality (Abramson et al., 1989 / 2002) proposes a causal chain in which life events are perceived as negative, stable (i.e., unlikely to change), global (i.e., affect many outcomes), likely to lead to other negative outcomes or consequences, and seen as implying that the individual concerned is flawed, unworthy, or deficient. The result of this chain is hopeless depression and suicidality.
Evidence-Based Psychological Approaches for Working with Self-Harm and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors
Depending upon the types of experience, and functions of behavior then a variety of therapeutic approaches are potentially appropriate for working with self-harm and suicidal thoughts and behaviors. These include:
- DBT, which targets the development of emotional regulation skills;
- trauma-focused therapies, which target the experiences which can trigger self-harm;
- cognitive behavioral treatments for depression and suicidal thinking.
Resources for Working with Self-Harm and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors
Psychology Tools resources available for working therapeutically with self-harm and suicidal thoughts and behaviors includes risk and safety plans, grounding strategies, and emotional regulation skills resources. It may also include:
- psychological models of self-harm and suicidal thoughts and behaviors
- information handouts for self-harm and suicidal thoughts and behaviors
- exercises for self-harm and suicidal thoughts and behaviors
- CBT worksheets for self-harm and suicidal thoughts and behaviors
- self-help programs for self-harm and suicidal thoughts and behaviors
References
- Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. J., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96(2), 358–372.
- Abramson, L. Y., Alloy, L. B., Hogan, M. E., Whitehouse, W. G., Gibb, B. E., Hankin, B. L., & Cornette, M. M. (2000). In T. E. Joiner & M. D. Rudd (Eds.), Suicide science: Expanding the boundaries(pp. 17–32). New York: Springer.
- Chapman, A. L., Gratz, K. L., & Brown, M. Z. (2006). Solving the puzzle of deliberate self-harm: The experiential avoidance model.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(3), 371–394.
- Joiner, T. (2005). Why people die by suicide. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Kessler, R. C., Borges, G., & Walters, E. E. (1999). Prevalence of and risk factors for lifetime suicide attempts in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56(7), 617–626.
- Kreitman, N. (1977). Parasuicide. New York: Wiley.
- Linehan, M. M. (2014). DBT skills training manual(2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
- Van Orden, K. A., Witte, T. K., Cukrowicz, K. C., Braithwaite, S. R., Selby, E. A., & Joiner, T. E. Jr. (2010). The interpersonal theory of suicide. Psychological Review, 117(2), 575–600.
- Velamoor, V. R., & Cernovsky, Z. Z. (1992). Suicide with the motive ‘to die’ or ‘not to die’ and its socioanamnestic correlates. Social Behavior and Personality,20(3), 193–198.